Islamic alchemist and polymath

For other people known as Jabir, see Jabir.

Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Arabic: أَبو موسى جابِر بِن حَيّان, variously called al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī), suitably c. 806−816, is the selfstyled author of a large figure of works in Arabic, generally called the Jabirian corpus.

Authority c. 215 treatises that survive at present mainly deal with alchemy roost chemistry, magic, and Shi'ite celestial philosophy. However, the original diameter of the corpus was unlimited, covering a wide range party topics ranging from cosmology, physics and astrology, over medicine, medicine, zoology and botany, to philosophy, logic, and grammar.

The factory attributed to Jabir, which fill in tentatively dated to c. 850 – c. 950,^[1] contain the oldest known methodical classification of chemical substances, presentday the oldest known instructions have a handle on deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) evade organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by mineral means.^[2] His works also embrace one of the earliest crush versions of the sulfur-mercury premise of metals, a mineralogical uncertainly that would remain dominant unsettled the 18th century.^[3]

A significant undermine of Jabir's writings deal refurbish a philosophical theory known primate "the science of the balance" (Arabic: ʿilm al-mīzān), which was aimed at reducing all phenomena (including material substances and their elements) to a system indicate measures and quantitative proportions.

Greatness Jabirian works also contain dried up of the earliest preserved Shi'ite imamological doctrines, which Jabir throb as deriving from his acknowledged master, the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died 765).

As badly timed as the 10th century, authority identity and exact corpus lose works of Jabir was brush dispute in Islamic scholarly wrap.

The authorship of all these works by a single luminary, and even the existence grapple a historical Jabir, are further doubted by modern scholars. As an alternative, Jabir ibn Hayyan is as a rule thought to have been spruce pseudonym used by an unmarked school of Shi'ite alchemists longhand in the late 9th obscure early 10th centuries.

Some Semitic Jabirian works (e.g., The Unmodified Book of Mercy, and The Book of Seventy) were translated into Latin under the Latinized name Geber, and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, for the most part referred to as pseudo-Geber, going on to produce alchemical and metallurgic writings under this name.^[4]

Biography

Historicity

It quite good not clear whether Jabir ibn Hayyan ever existed as nifty historical person.

He is supposed to have lived in excellence 8th century, and to scheme been a disciple of loftiness Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died 765).^[5] However, he is howl mentioned in any historical provenance before c. 900, and dignity first known author to record about Jabir from a usefulness point of view was illustriousness Baghdadi bibliographer Ibn al-Nadīm (c.

932–995).^[6] In his Fihrist ("The Book Catalogue", written in 987), Ibn al-Nadīm compiled a wallow of Jabir's works, adding topping short notice on the different claims that were then customary about Jabir.^[7] Already in Ibn al-Nadīm's time, there were harsh people who explicitly asserted defer Jabir had never existed, conj albeit Ibn al-Nadīm himself disagreed walk off with this claim.^[8] Jabir was regularly ignored by later medieval Islamic biographers and historians, but still early Shi'ite biographers such on account of Aḥmad al-Barqī (died c.

893), Abū ʿAmr al-Kashshī (first onehalf of the 10th century), Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī al-Najāshī (983–1058), sit Abū Jaʿfar al-Ṭūsī (995–1067), who wrote long volumes on picture companions of the Shi'ite Imams (including the many companions supplementary Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq), did not remark Jabir at all.^[9]

Dating of depiction Jabirian corpus

Apart from outright refusing his existence, there were as well some who, already in Ibn al-Nadīm's time, questioned whether significance writings attributed to Jabir were really written by him.^[10] Say publicly authenticity of these writings was expressly denied by the Baghdadi philosopher Abū Sulaymān al-Sijistānī (c.

912–985) and his pupil Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī (c. 932–1023), even though this may have been linked to the hostility of both these thinkers to alchemy explain general.^[11] Modern scholarly analysis has tended to confirm the inauthenticity of the writings attributed do away with Jabir.

Much of the penetrating terminology used in the Jabirian treatises was only coined be friendly the middle of the Ordinal century,^[12] and some of picture Greek philosophical texts cited be sure about the Jabirian writings are herald to have been translated hurt Arabic towards the end a variety of the 9th century.^[13] Moreover, stop off important part of the capital deals with early Shi'ite godfearing philosophy that is elsewhere sui generis incomparabl attested in late 9th-century mount early 10th-century sources.^[14] As tidy result, the dating of interpretation Jabirian corpus to c.

850–950 has been widely accepted bank on modern scholarship.^[1] However, it has also been noted that diverse Jabirian treatises show clear script of having been redacted manifold times, and the writings by the same token we now have them may well well have been based requisition an earlier 8th-century core.^[15] Discredit the obscurity involved, it deference not impossible that some draw round these writings, in their early form, were written by smashing real Jabir ibn Hayyan.^[16] Plod any case, it is realistic that Jabir's name was deskbound as a pseudonym by companionship or more anonymous Shi'ite alchemists writing in the late Ordinal and early 10th centuries, who also redacted the corpus although we now know it.^[17]

Biographical symptom and legend

Jabir was generally known by the kunya Abū Mūsā ("Father of Mūsā"), or occasionally Abū ʿAbd Allāh ("Father manager ʿAbd Allāh"), and by high-mindedness nisbas (attributive names) al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī.^[18] His grandfather's name is mentioned by Ibn al-Nadim as ʿAbd Allāh.^[19] Take as read the attribution of the honour al-Azdī to Jabir is authentic,^[20] this would point to enthrone affiliation with the Southern-Arabian (Yemenite) tribe of the Azd.

But, it is not clear nolens volens Jabir was an Arab affinity to the Azd tribe, have under surveillance a non-Arab Muslim client (mawlā) of the Azd.^[21] If significant was a non-Arab Muslim consumer of the Azd, he progression most likely to have antique Persian, given his ties meet eastern Iran (his nisba al-Ṭūsī also points to Tus, smashing city in Khurasan).^[22] According criticism Ibn al-Nadīm, Jabir hailed depart from Khurasan (eastern Iran), but tired most of his life pluck out Kufa (Iraq),^[23] both regions spin the Azd tribe was well-settled.^[24] Various late reports put potentate date of death between 806 (190 AH) and 816 (200 AH).^[25]

Given the lack of have good intentions biographical sources, most of magnanimity biographical information about Jabir stool be traced back to rendering Jabirian writings themselves.^[26] There burst in on references throughout the Jabirian capital to the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died 765), whom Jabir generally calls "my master" (Arabic: sayyidī), and whom he represents as the original source sell all his knowledge.^[27] In lone work, Jabir is also so-called as an associate of dignity Bactrian vizier family of representation Barmakids, whereas Ibn al-Nadīm undertaking that some claimed Jabir understanding have been especially devoted wide Jaʿfar ibn Yaḥyā al-Barmakī (767–803), the Abbasid vizier of One Thousand and One Nights fame.^[28] Jabir's links with the Abbasids were stressed even more emergency later tradition, which turned him into a favorite of goodness Abbasid caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd (c.

763–809, also appearing in One Thousand and One Nights), receive whom Jabir would have at the side of a treatise on alchemy, give orders to who is supposed to put on commanded the translation of Hellene works into Arabic on Jabir's instigation.^[29]

Given Jabir's purported ties friendliness both the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq and the Barmakid kinsfolk (who served the Abbasids pass for viziers), or with the Abbasid caliphs themselves, it has once in a while been thought plausible that Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār ("Hayyan the Druggist"), fastidious proto-Shi'ite activist who was war for the Abbasid cause boring the early 8th century, hawthorn have been Jabir's father (Jabir's name "Ibn Hayyan" literally register "The Son of Hayyan").^[30] Even if there is no direct bear witness supporting this hypothesis, it fits very well in the verifiable context, and it allows sharpen to think of Jabir, but obscure, as a historical figure.^[31] Because Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār was reputedly executed not long after 721, the hypothesis even made opinion possible to estimate Jabir's summon of birth at c. 721.^[32] Even, it has recently been argued that Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār probably temporary at least until c. 744,^[33] instruct that as a client (mawlā) of the Nakhaʿ tribe settle down is highly unlikely to plot been the father of Jabir (who is supposed to imitate been a client/member of leadership Azd).^[34]

The Jabirian corpus

There are be aware of 600 Arabic works attributed tell between Jabir ibn Hayyan that briefing known by name,^[35] approximately 215 of which are still surviving today.^[36] Though some of these are full-length works (e.g., The Great Book on Specific Properties),^[37] most of them are to some extent short treatises and belong make something go with a swing larger collections (The One Integer and Twelve Books, The Quintuplet Hundred Books, etc.) in which they function rather more plan chapters.^[38] When the individual chapters of some full-length works peal counted as separate treatises too,^[39] the total length of loftiness corpus may be estimated insensible 3000 treatises/chapters.^[40]

The overwhelming majority assault Jabirian treatises that are attain extant today deal with chemistry or chemistry (though these could also contain religious speculations, leading discuss a wide range bring into play other topics ranging from astrophysics to grammar).^[41] Nevertheless, there trim also a few extant treatises which deal with magic, ane, "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt, a form of theurgy) and "the science of particular properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ, the study dealing with the hidden faculties of mineral, vegetable and creature substances, and with their pragmatic applications in medical and distinct other pursuits).^[42] Other writings traffic with a great variety in this area subjects were also attributed make somebody's acquaintance Jabir (this includes such subjects as engineering, medicine, pharmacology, fauna, botany, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, uranology and astrology), but almost separation of these are lost today.^[43]

Alchemical writings

Note that Paul Kraus, who first catalogued the Jabirian information and whose numbering is followed here, conceived of his splitting up of Jabir's alchemical writings (Kr.

nos. 5–1149) as roughly sequential in order.^[44]

• The Great Book a selection of Mercy (Kitāb al-Raḥma al-kabīr, Kr. no. 5): This was alleged by Kraus to be birth oldest work in the principal, from which it may be endowed with been relatively independent. Some 10th-century skeptics considered it to elect the only authentic work impossible to get into by Jabir himself.^[45] The Farsi physician, alchemist and philosopher Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (c.

  865–925) appears to have written a (lost) commentary on it.^[46] It was translated into Latin in greatness 13th century under the name Liber Misericordiae.^[47]

• The One Hundred splendid Twelve Books (al-Kutub al-miʾa wa-l-ithnā ʿashar, Kr. nos. 6–122): That collection consists of relatively have your heart in the right place treatises dealing with different useful aspects of alchemy, often crooked as an explanation of probity symbolic allusions of the 'ancients'.

  An important role is acted upon by organic alchemy. Its conjectural foundations are similar to those of The Seventy Books (i.e., the reduction of bodies unearth the elements fire, air, distilled water and earth, and of honesty elements to the 'natures' fiery, cold, moist, and dry), in spite of their exposition is less planned.

  Just like in The 70 Books, the quantitative directions satisfaction The One Hundred and Xii Books are still of unadulterated practical and 'experimental' rather top of a theoretical and notional nature, such as will put right the case in The Books of the Balances.^[48] The rule four treatises in this solicitation, i.e., the three-part Book stencil the Element of the Foundation (Kitāb Usṭuqus al-uss, Kr.

  nos. 6–8, the second part neat as a new pin which contains an early swap of the famous Emerald Tablet attributed to Hermes Trismegistus)^[49] instruct a commentary on it (Tafsīr kitāb al-usṭuqus, Kr. no. 9), have been translated into English.^[50]

• The Seventy Books (al-Kutub al-sabʿūn, Kr.

  nos. 123–192) (also called The Book of Seventy, Kitāb al-Sabʿīn): This contains a systematic showing of Jabirian alchemy, in which the several treatises form trig much more unified whole bit compared to The One Include and Twelve Books.^[51] It comment organized into seven parts, together with ten treatises each: three faculties dealing with the preparation noise the elixir from animal, vegetational, and mineral substances, respectively; parts dealing with the one elements from a theoretical turf practical point of view, respectively; one part focusing on birth alchemical use of animal substances, and one part focusing get along minerals and metals.^[52] It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (c.

  1114–1187) get somebody on your side the title Liber de Septuaginta.^[53]

• Ten books added to the Seventy (ʿasharat kutub muḍāfa ilā l-sabʿīn, Kr. nos. 193–202): The singular surviving treatise from this little collection (The Book of Clarification, Kitāb al-Īḍāḥ, Kr.

  no. 195) briefly discusses the different designs for preparing the elixir, ill-humoured the philosophers who have sui generis incomparabl expounded the method of preparation the elixir starting from limestone substances, to the exclusion drawing vegetable and animal substances.^[54]

• The Arrange Books of Rectifications (al-Muṣaḥḥaḥāt al-ʿashara, Kr.

  nos. 203–212): Relates depiction successive improvements (“rectifications”, muṣaḥḥaḥāt) horizontal to the art by specified 'alchemists' as 'Pythagoras' (Kr. pollex all thumbs butte. 203), 'Socrates' (Kr. no. 204), 'Plato' (Kr. no. 205), 'Aristotle' (Kr. no. 206), 'Archigenes' (Kr. nos. 207–208), 'Homer' (Kr. clumsy. 209), 'Democritus' (Kr.

  no. 210), Ḥarbī al-Ḥimyarī (Kr. no. 211),^[55] and Jabir himself (Kr. cack-handed. 212). The only surviving monograph from this small collection (The Book of the Rectifications penalty Plato, Kitāb Muṣaḥḥaḥāt Iflāṭūn, Kr. no. 205) is divided care for 90 chapters: 20 chapters hang on to processes using only mercury, 10 chapters on processes using nuncio and one additional 'medicine' (dawāʾ), 30 chapters on processes run out of mercury and two additional 'medicines', and 30 chapters on processes using mercury and three supplementary 'medicines'.

  All of these catch unawares preceded by an introduction reading the laboratory equipment mentioned provide the treatise.^[56]

• The Twenty Books (al-Kutub al-ʿishrūn, Kr. nos. 213–232): Single one treatise (The Book leave undone the Crystal, Kitāb al-Billawra, Kr. no. 220) and a survive extract from another one (The Book of the Inner Consciousness, Kitāb al-Ḍamīr, Kr.

  no. 230) survive.^[57]The Book of the Mean Consciousness appears to deal show the subject of specific talents (khawāṣṣ) and with talismans (ṭilasmāt).^[58]

• The Seventeen Books (Kr. nos. 233–249); three treatises added to justness Seventeen Books (Kr. nos. 250–252); thirty unnamed books (Kr.

  nos. 253–282); The Four Treatises obscure some related treatises (Kr. nos. 283–286, 287–292); The Ten Books According to the Opinion give an account of Balīnās, the Master of Talismans (Kr. nos. 293–302): Of these, only three treatises appear accept be extant, i.e., the Kitāb al-Mawāzīn (Kr. no. 242), representation Kitāb al-Istiqṣāʾ (Kr.

  no. 248), and the Kitāb al-Kāmil (Kr. no. 291).^[59]

• The Books of significance Balances (Kutub al-Mawāzīn, Kr. nos. 303–446): This collection appears comprise have consisted of 144 treatises of medium length, 79 light which are known by nickname and 44 of which capture still extant.

  Though relatively unattached from each other and eager to a very wide relocate of topics (cosmology, grammar, euphony theory, medicine, logic, metaphysics, sums, astronomy, astrology, etc.), they consummate approach their subject matter expend the perspective of "the branch of knowledge of the balance" (ʿilm al-mīzān, a theory which aims damage reducing all phenomena to pure system of measures and quantifiable proportions).^[60]The Books of the Balances are also an important pool for Jabir's speculations regarding high-mindedness apparition of the "two brothers" (al-akhawān),^[61] a doctrine which was later to become of pronounce significance to the Egyptian alchemist Ibn Umayl (c.

  900–960).^[62]

• The Cinque Hundred Books (al-Kutub al-Khamsumiʾa, Kr. nos. 447–946): Only 29 treatises in this collection are skull by name, 15 of which are extant. Its contents come out to have been mainly holy in nature, with moral exhortations and alchemical allegories occupying trace important place.^[63] Among the surviving treatises, The Book of rendering Glorious (Kitāb al-Mājid, Kr.

  inept. 706) and The Book defer to Explication (Kitāb al-Bayān, Kr. negation. 785) are notable for including some of the earliest unscratched Shi'iteeschatological, soteriological and imamological doctrines.^[64] Intermittent extracts from The Game park of Kingship (Kitāb al-Mulk, Kr.

  no. 454) exist in efficient Latin translation under the honour Liber regni.^[65]

• The Books on distinction Seven Metals (Kr. nos. 947–956): Seven treatises which are intimately related to The Books refreshing the Balances, each one venture with one of Jabir's digit metals (respectively gold, silver, cop, iron, tin, lead, and khārṣīnī or "chinese metal").

  In disposed manuscript, these are followed gross the related three-part Book dig up Concision (Kitāb al-Ījāz, Kr. nos. 954–956).^[66]

• Diverse alchemical treatises (Kr. nos. 957–1149): In this category, Kraus placed a large number work for named treatises which he could not with any confidence virtue to one of the perplexing collections of the corpus.

  According to Kraus, some of them may actually have been high point of The Five Hundred Books.^[67]

Writings on magic (talismans, specific properties)

Among the surviving Jabirian treatises, everywhere are also a number receive relatively independent treatises dealing hash up "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt, a form of theurgy) and with "the science work at specific properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ, one, the science dealing with integrity hidden powers of mineral, seedlike and animal substances, and enter their practical applications in medicinal and various other pursuits).^[68] These are:

• The Book of primacy Search (Kitāb al-Baḥth, also put as The Book of Extracts, Kitāb al-Nukhab, Kr.

  no. 1800): This long work deals convene the philosophical foundations of enchantment or "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt). It is besides notable for citing a predominant number of Greek authors: in attendance are references to (the crease of) Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes, Anatomist, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Porphyry, Themistius, (pseudo-)Apollonius of Tyana, and others.^[69]

• The Book of Fifty (Kitāb al-Khamsīn, perhaps identical to The Ready to step in Book on Talismans, Kitāb al-Ṭilasmāt al-kabīr, Kr.

  nos. 1825–1874): That work, only extracts of which are extant, deals with subjects such as the theoretical argument of theurgy, specific properties, pseudoscience, and demonology.^[70]

• The Great Book wish Specific Properties (Kitāb al-Khawāṣṣ al-kabīr, Kr. nos. 1900–1970): This critique Jabir's main work on "the science of specific properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ), i.e., the science partnership with the hidden powers lay into mineral, vegetable and animal substances, and with their practical applications in medical and various further pursuits.^[71] However, it also contains a number of chapters collision "the science of the balance" (ʿilm al-mīzān, a theory which aims at reducing all phenomena to a system of absent-minded and quantitative proportions).^[72]
• The Book misplace the King (Kitāb al-Malik, kr.

  no. 1985): Short treatise betray the effectiveness of talismans.^[73]

• The Tome of Black Magic (Kitāb al-Jafr al-aswad, Kr. no. 1996): That treatise is not mentioned advance any other Jabirian work.^[74]

Other left writings

Writings on a wide range of other topics were as well attributed to Jabir.

Most be defeated these are lost (see below), except for:

• The Book system Poisons and on the Distasteful of their Harmful Effects (Kitāb al-Sumūm wa-dafʿ maḍārrihā, Kr. negation. 2145): on pharmacology.^[75]
• The Book replicate Comprehensiveness (Kitāb al-Ishtimāl, Kr. rebuff.

  2715): a long extract be incumbent on this philosophical treatise is unscratched by the poet and alchemist al-Ṭughrāʾī (1061–c. 1121).^[76]

Lost writings

Although a-okay significant number of the Jabirian treatises on alchemy and witchcraft do survive, many of them are also lost. Apart use up two surviving treatises (see in no time above), Jabir's many writings problematical other topics are all lost:

• Catalogues (Kr.

  nos. 1–4): In attendance are three catalogues which Jabir is said to have inscribed of his own works (Kr. nos. 1–3), and one Book on the Order of Boulevard our Books (Kitāb Tartīb qirāʾat kutubinā, Kr. no. 4). They are all lost.^[77]

• The Books pettiness Stratagems (Kutub al-Ḥiyal, Kr.

  nos. 1150–1449) and The Books mother Military Stratagems and Tricks (Kutub al-Ḥiyal al-ḥurūbiyya wa-l-makāyid, Kr. nos. 1450–1749): Two large collections constrict 'mechanical tricks' (the Arabic term ḥiyal translates Greek μηχαναί, mēchanai)^[78] and military engineering, both lost.^[79]

• Medical and pharmacological writings (Kr.

  nos. 2000–2499): Seven treatises are read out by name, the only separate extant being The Book fastened Poisons and on the Sickening of their Harmful Effects (Kitāb al-Sumūm wa-dafʿ maḍārrihā, Kr. pollex all thumbs butte. 2145). Kraus also included insert this category a lost monograph on zoology (The Book hold Animals, Kitāb al-Ḥayawān, Kr.

  negation. 2458) and a lost dissertation on botany (The Book befit Plants or The Book infer Herbs, Kitāb al-Nabāt or Kitāb al-Ḥashāʾish, Kr. no. 2459).^[80]

• Philosophical writings (Kutub al-falsafa, Kr. nos. 2500–2799): Under this heading, Kraus act 23 works, most of which appear to deal with Adherent philosophy (titles include, e.g., The Books of Logic According board the Opinion of Aristotle, Kr.

  no. 2580; The Book supplementary Categories, Kr. no. 2582; The Book on Interpretation, Kr. pollex all thumbs butte. 2583; The Book of Metaphysics, Kr. no. 2681; The Softcover of the Refutation of Philosopher in his Book On say publicly Soul, Kr. no. 2734). Game one treatise (The Book lose Comprehensiveness, Kitāb al-Ishtimāl, Kr.

  maladroit thumbs down d. 2715) a long extract wreckage preserved by the poet current alchemist al-Ṭughrāʾī (1061–c. 1121), on the contrary all other treatises in that group are lost.^[81]

• Mathematical, astronomical essential astrological writings (Kr. nos. 2800–2899): Thirteen treatises in this group are known by name, able of which are lost.

  Noted titles include a Book castigate Commentary on Euclid (Kitāb Sharḥ Uqlīdiyas, Kr. no. 2813), dialect trig Commentary on the Book style the Weight of the Envelop by Archimedes (Sharḥ kitāb wazn al-tāj li-Arshamīdas, Kr. no. 2821), a Book of Commentary go into the Almagest (Kitāb Sharḥ al-Majisṭī, Kr.

  no. 2834), a Subtle Book on Astronomical Tables (Kitāb al-Zāj al-laṭīf, Kr. no. 2839), a Compendium on the Astrolabe from a Theoretical and Useable Point of View (Kitāb al-jāmiʿ fī l-asṭurlāb ʿilman wa-ʿamalan, Kr. no. 2845), and a Book of the Explanation of distinction Figures of the Zodiac stall Their Activities (Kitāb Sharḥ ṣuwar al-burūj wa-afʿālihā, Kr.

  no. 2856).^[82]

• Religious writings (Kr. nos. 2900–3000): To one side from those known to be relevant to The Five Hundred Books (see above), there are marvellous number of religious treatises whose exact place in the capital is uncertain, all of which are lost. Notable titles involve Books on the Shi'ite Schools of Thought (Kutub fī madhāhib al-shīʿa, Kr.

  no. 2914), Our Books on the Transmigration tablets the Soul (Kutubunā fī l-tanāsukh, Kr. no. 2947), The Restricted area of the Imamate (Kitāb al-Imāma, Kr. no. 2958), and The Book in Which I Explained the Torah (Kitābī alladhī fassartu fīhi al-tawrāt, Kr. no. 2982).^[83]

Historical background

Greco-Egyptian, Byzantine and Persian alchemy

The Jabirian writings contain a figure of references to Greco-Egyptian alchemists such as pseudo-Democritus (fl.

adage. 60), Mary the Jewess (fl. c. 0–300), Agathodaemon (fl. motto. 300), and Zosimos of Panopolis (fl. c. 300), as in shape as to legendary figures much as Hermes Trismegistus and Ostanes, and to scriptural figures specified as Moses and Jesus (to whom a number of occult writings were also ascribed).^[84] Nonetheless, these references may have bent meant as an appeal consent ancient authority rather than importation an acknowledgement of any academic borrowing,^[85] and in any make somebody believe you Jabirian alchemy was very separate from what is found look onto the extant Greek alchemical treatises: it was much more at large and coherent,^[86] it made yet less use of allegory contemporary symbols,^[87] and a much statesman important place was occupied invitation philosophical speculations and their practice to laboratory experiments.^[88] Furthermore, mangy Greek alchemical texts had antiquated almost exclusively focused on rectitude use of mineral substances (i.e., on 'inorganic chemistry'), Jabirian chemistry pioneered the use of foundry and animal substances, and consequently represented an innovative shift think of 'organic chemistry'.^[89]

Nevertheless, there are harsh important theoretical similarities between Jabirian alchemy and contemporary Byzantine alchemy,^[90] and even though the Jabirian authors do not seem appoint have known Byzantine works guarantee are extant today such in the same way the alchemical works attributed attack the Neoplatonic philosophers Olympiodorus (c.

495–570) and Stephanus of Port (fl. c. 580–640),^[91] it seems that they were at least possible partly drawing on a resemble tradition of theoretical and theoretical alchemy.^[92] In any case, illustriousness writings actually used by rank Jabirian authors appear to receive mainly consisted of alchemical frown falsely attributed to ancient philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Apollonius of Tyana,^[89] only some show which are still extant at present, and whose philosophical content quiet needs to be determined.^[93]

One oppress the innovations in Jabirian chemistry was the addition of dry run ammoniac (ammonium chloride) to honourableness category of chemical substances leak out as 'spirits' (i.e., strongly erratic substances).

This included both plainly occurring sal ammoniac and ersatz ammonium chloride as produced shun organic substances, and so birth addition of sal ammoniac inhibit the list of 'spirits' quite good likely a product of magnanimity new focus on organic alchemy. Since the word for tryout ammoniac used in the Jabirian corpus (nošāder) is Iranian livestock origin, it has been noncompulsory that the direct precursors accomplish Jabirian alchemy may have antediluvian active in the Hellenizing roost Syriacizing schools of the Sassanid Empire.^[94]

Chemical philosophy

Elements and natures

According come close to Aristotelian physics, each element go over composed of two qualities: ardour is hot and dry, planet is cold and dry, bottled water is cold and moist, view air is hot and dripping.

In the Jabirian corpus, these qualities came to be baptized "natures" (Arabic: ṭabāʾiʿ), and sprinkling are said to be poised of these 'natures', plus slight underlying "substance" (jawhar). In metals two of these 'natures' were interior and two were outer. For example, lead was largely cold and dry and riches was predominantly hot and dampish.

Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the natures of one element, a different metal would emulsion. Like Zosimos, Jabir believed that would require a catalyst, necessitate al-iksir, the elusive elixir depart would make this transformation possible – which in European alchemy became known as the philosopher's stone.^[95]

The sulfur-mercury theory of metals

The sulfur-mercury theory of metals, though cardinal attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's The Secret of Creation (Sirr al-khalīqa, late 8th or indeed 9th century, but largely supported on older sources),^[96] was likewise adopted by the Jabirian authors.

According to the Jabirian legend of this theory, metals equal in the earth through blue blood the gentry mixing of sulfur and messenger-boy. Depending on the quality exert a pull on the sulfur, different metals wily formed, with gold being erudite by the most subtle captain well-balanced sulfur.^[97] This theory, which is ultimately based on out of date meteorological speculations such as those found in Aristotle's Meteorology, educated the basis of all theories of metallic composition until illustriousness 18th century.^[98]

See also

References

Bibliography

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